Networks, Storage & Software

Understand the system

How it works

AI infrastructure succeeds when data and synchronization arrive on time; network, storage, and software stalls are stranded silicon in another form.

Network dependencies

Connecting the scale-out network

Select a capability to explore its role and connections.

Selected: Switching silicon

Switching silicon

Switch ASICs determine port density, throughput, buffering, routing features, power, and supported network topologies.

Explore Switching silicon in Atlas

Documented connections

Switching silicon → Optical transceivers
Switch ports drive optical modules where electrical reach is insufficient.
Relationship evidence · 2
1. [1] Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
2. [2] UALink 1.0 defines 200 Gb/s-per-lane links and a scale-up fabric designed for as many as 1,024 accelerators.

Selected documented dependencies. Arrows retain their Atlas direction; they do not represent quantities or a complete engineering process.

Interactive selection requires JavaScript. Explore each capability directly:

Switching silicon — Switch ASICs determine port density, throughput, buffering, routing features, power, and supported network topologies.

Optical transceivers — Optical modules convert electrical lanes into light for high-rate links where copper reach, density, or power becomes limiting.

Optics & fiber — Transceivers, connectors, and fiber carrying high-rate signals beyond copper reach.

Scale-out network — Ethernet or specialized switched fabrics connecting racks and compute pods across a cluster.

AI storage — Flash, controllers, file and object layers serving datasets, checkpoints, and recovery.

Large AI systems are data-movement machines. Scale-up links coordinate devices within a node or rack, scale-out fabrics connect thousands more, optics carry signals across distance, and storage streams training data while absorbing checkpoints. Above them, drivers, compilers, kernels, collectives, schedulers, frameworks, and observability software decide whether the physical system behaves like one dependable computer.

Scale-up and scale-out

Scale-up fabrics prioritize tightly coupled accelerator communication; scale-out networks connect racks and pods. The design must match collective patterns, failure domains, and oversubscription targets.

Distinguish electrical and optical reaches
Map topology to model parallelism

Supporting evidence · 3

Optics is the distance tax

SerDes, copper cables, transceivers, fibers, connectors, and switches convert and regenerate signals across the cluster. Power, heat, insertion loss, and manufacturing yield rise with bandwidth.

Reach determines where electrical links become optical
Transceivers are both power loads and supply-chain nodes

Supporting evidence · 2

Storage protects expensive time

Training pipelines need parallel ingest, metadata performance, checkpoint writes, and rapid restore. A storage pause idles the costliest resources in the building.

Trace dataset, checkpoint, and recovery paths
Measure accelerator idle time caused by I/O

Supporting evidence · 3

Software is the utilization layer

Compilers, optimized kernels, runtimes, collectives, parallelism strategies, schedulers, and monitoring translate hardware into useful work. Portability and tuning depth shape both economics and resilience.

Surface lock-in without assuming equivalence
Tie software versions to measured utilization

Supporting evidence · 2

Featured evidence

Evidence in context

Facility-stated storage capacity references

Published capacity figures for Perlmutter all-flash scratch, Aurora DAOS, and the Orion filesystem capacity tier.

Facility-stated capacityPB

View chart values

Facility-stated storage capacity references — underlying values in PB
Category	Facility-stated capacity
Perlmutter	44 PB
Aurora DAOS	230 PB
Orion	679 PB

Key indicators

Key measures & constraints

01
Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
Class
vendor spec
Geography
Global
Period
Tomahawk 6 generation
Confidence
high
Trace evidence
02
PyTorch documents data, fully sharded data, tensor, and pipeline parallelism as complementary approaches for distributed model training.
Class
fact
Geography
Global
Period
2025 documentation
Confidence
high
Trace evidence
03
U.S. laboratory documentation states 44 PB for Perlmutter scratch, 230 PB for Aurora DAOS, and a 679 PB usable capacity tier for Orion; these differ in architecture and lifecycle policy and are not interchangeable workload benchmarks.
Class
fact
Geography
United States
Period
Live facility documentation reviewed August 2026
Confidence
high
Trace evidence
04
NVIDIA reported Data Center networking revenue of $12.990 billion in fiscal 2025 and $31.376 billion in fiscal 2026, an increase of 142 percent; this is one supplier's audited revenue rather than total network capital expenditure.
Class
fact
Geography
Global
Period
NVIDIA fiscal years 2025 and 2026
Confidence
high
Trace evidence

System map

Connections across the system

Explore inputs, outputs, and shared capabilities in the Atlas. Open the register for every documented relationship.

Across the system boundary Selected documented relationships · arrows follow the Atlas

Enters this system 1

AI rack system→ Scale-out networkTrace relationship

Leaves this system 3

AI rack system← Runtime & frameworksTrace relationship
Accelerator architecture← Runtime & frameworksTrace relationship

System 08Networks, Storage & Software11 internal relationships

Shared capabilities can belong to more than one System. These links carry materials, energy, information, capital, or permissions; they describe dependencies, not quantities or a complete process model.

Explore 10 capabilities and operating boundaries

Atlas nodes / 10

All documented relationships · 15

criticaloutput
Runtime & frameworks AI rack system
Drivers, kernels, frameworks, and scheduling convert hardware into useful work.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] CUDA and ROCm each combine programming models, runtimes, compilers, libraries, debugging tools, and hardware interfaces into an accelerator software stack.
2. [2] PyTorch documents data, fully sharded data, tensor, and pipeline parallelism as complementary approaches for distributed model training.
criticalinternal
NICs, SmartNICs & DPUs Switching silicon
Endpoint adapters and switching silicon form the electrical endpoints and forwarding core of the fabric.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] PCI Express 6.0 doubles the raw data rate to 64 GT/s and supports up to 256 GB/s bidirectionally on an x16 link.
2. [2] Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
importantoutput
Runtime & frameworks Accelerator architecture
Software capabilities and workload behavior feed back into hardware design.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 1
1. [1] CUDA and ROCm each combine programming models, runtimes, compilers, libraries, debugging tools, and hardware interfaces into an accelerator software stack.
importantoutput
Scale-up fabric AI rack system
Scale-up links couple accelerators within the rack-scale computer.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] UALink 1.0 defines 200 Gb/s-per-lane links and a scale-up fabric designed for as many as 1,024 accelerators.
2. [2] PCI Express 6.0 doubles the raw data rate to 64 GT/s and supports up to 256 GB/s bidirectionally on an x16 link.
importantinput
AI rack system Scale-out network
Rack endpoints attach to the cluster's scale-out switching fabric.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
2. [2] NVIDIA's DGX GB200 documentation describes a rack-scale system with 72 GPUs, 36 Grace CPUs, and an approximately 120 kW power envelope, with liquid cooling alongside air-cooled components.
importantinternal
Optics & fiber Scale-out network
Optical transceivers and fiber carry high-rate links beyond copper reach.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 1
1. [1] Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
importantinternal
AI storage Scale-out network
Storage traffic reaches compute through the data-center fabric.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 1
1. [1] Industry presenters working through SNIA describe AI storage as needing to sustain dataset ingest while absorbing checkpoints and supporting recovery without leaving accelerators idle.
importantinternal
Runtime & frameworks Scale-out network
Parallelism and collective libraries shape network traffic and topology needs.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 1
1. [1] PyTorch documents data, fully sharded data, tensor, and pipeline parallelism as complementary approaches for distributed model training.
importantinternal
AI storage Runtime & frameworks
Datasets and checkpoints feed training and recovery workflows.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 1
1. [1] Industry presenters working through SNIA describe AI storage as needing to sustain dataset ingest while absorbing checkpoints and supporting recovery without leaving accelerators idle.
importantinternal
NICs, SmartNICs & DPUs Scale-out network
NICs, SmartNICs & DPUs supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] PCI Express 6.0 doubles the raw data rate to 64 GT/s and supports up to 256 GB/s bidirectionally on an x16 link.
2. [2] Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
importantinternal
Switching silicon Scale-out network
Switching silicon supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
2. [2] NVIDIA reported Data Center networking revenue of $12.990 billion in fiscal 2025 and $31.376 billion in fiscal 2026, an increase of 142 percent; this is one supplier's audited revenue rather than total network capital expenditure.
importantinternal
Optical transceivers Optics & fiber
Optical transceivers supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
2. [2] UALink 1.0 defines 200 Gb/s-per-lane links and a scale-up fabric designed for as many as 1,024 accelerators.
importantinternal
Fiber & cabling Optics & fiber
Fiber & cabling supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
2. [2] Open Compute Project workstreams are addressing future AI rack power envelopes from 250 kW toward 1 MW alongside liquid-cooling standards.
importantinternal
Storage media & controllers AI storage
Storage media & controllers supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] NVM Express Base Specification 2.4 defines the base architecture and host-controller interface for NVM subsystems; it does not prescribe AI workload throughput.
2. [2] U.S. laboratory documentation states 44 PB for Perlmutter scratch, 230 PB for Aurora DAOS, and a 679 PB usable capacity tier for Orion; these differ in architecture and lifecycle policy and are not interchangeable workload benchmarks.
importantinternal
Switching silicon Optical transceivers
Switch ports drive optical modules where electrical reach is insufficient.
Trace relationship
Supporting evidence · 2
1. [1] Broadcom specifies 102.4 Tb/s of switching capacity for a single Tomahawk 6 Ethernet switch chip.
2. [2] UALink 1.0 defines 200 Gb/s-per-lane links and a scale-up fabric designed for as many as 1,024 accelerators.

Named companies + institutions

Organizations & their roles

principal · public company
NVIDIA
NVIDIA Corporation
Computing-platform company that designs AI accelerators, interconnects, systems, and the software stack that operates them.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier
Products / service
Data-center networking platforms · CUDA software platform
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Scale-out network
  NVIDIA's filing-backed operating portfolio includes data-center networking platforms, and the attached quantitative operating or investment measure supports principal status at this Atlas boundary; no subregional operating place is asserted.
- Runtime & frameworks
  NVIDIA's filing-backed operating portfolio includes cuda software platform; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1 Trace role claim 2
principal · standards body
NVM Express
NVM Express, Inc.
Standards organization maintaining the NVMe storage interface specifications.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
standards setter
Products / service
NVMe storage interface standards
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
Not cataloged
Why this organization belongs in the System
- AI storage
  Primary-source evidence connects this institution to nvme storage interface standards in the specified Atlas capability.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
principal · consortium
UALink Consortium
Industry consortium developing a scale-up interconnect specification for accelerator systems.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
standards setter
Products / service
accelerator scale-up interconnect specification
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
Not cataloged
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Scale-up fabric
  Primary-source evidence connects this institution to accelerator scale-up interconnect specification in the specified Atlas capability.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
material · public company
Arista Networks
Arista Networks, Inc.
Cloud-networking company supplying high-speed switching systems, routing platforms, and network software.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier
Products / service
Network operating software · Switch platforms built around merchant and custom silicon · Data-center switching systems
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Runtime & frameworks
  Arista Networks's filing-backed operating portfolio includes network operating software; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Switching silicon
  Arista Networks's filing-backed operating portfolio includes switch platforms built around merchant and custom silicon; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Scale-out network
  Arista Networks's filing-backed operating portfolio includes data-center switching systems; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1

All other organizations · 16

material · public company
Broadcom
Broadcom Inc.
Semiconductor and infrastructure-software company supplying switching, connectivity, custom silicon, storage, and optical components.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier · designer
Products / service
Storage connectivity and controller silicon · Network adapters and connectivity silicon · Ethernet switching silicon
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Storage media & controllers
  Broadcom's filing-backed operating portfolio includes storage connectivity and controller silicon; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- NICs, SmartNICs & DPUs
  Broadcom's filing-backed operating portfolio includes network adapters and connectivity silicon; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Switching silicon
  Broadcom's filing-backed operating portfolio includes ethernet switching silicon; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
material · public company
Cisco
Cisco Systems, Inc.
Networking and security company supplying switching, routing, optical, observability, and data-center infrastructure.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier
Products / service
Optical networking systems and modules · Network operating and observability software · Data-center switching and routing
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Optical transceivers
  Cisco's filing-backed operating portfolio includes optical networking systems and modules; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Runtime & frameworks
  Cisco's filing-backed operating portfolio includes network operating and observability software; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Scale-out network
  Cisco's filing-backed operating portfolio includes data-center switching and routing; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
material · public company
Equinix
Equinix, Inc.
Digital-infrastructure company operating carrier-neutral data centers and interconnection services across global markets.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
operator
Products / service
Digital interconnection services
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Scale-out network
  Equinix's filing-backed operating portfolio includes digital interconnection services; the listed places are explicit role geographies, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
material · public company
HPE
Hewlett Packard Enterprise Company
Enterprise infrastructure company supplying servers, supercomputers, networking, storage, and services.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier
Products / service
Enterprise data storage
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- AI storage
  HPE's filing-backed operating portfolio includes enterprise data storage; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
material · public company
Marvell
Marvell Technology, Inc.
Data-infrastructure semiconductor company supplying networking, storage, interconnect, and custom compute silicon.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier · designer
Products / service
Storage controller silicon · Switching and connectivity silicon · Electro-optical DSP silicon
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Storage media & controllers
  Marvell's filing-backed operating portfolio includes storage controller silicon; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Switching silicon
  Marvell's filing-backed operating portfolio includes switching and connectivity silicon; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Optical transceivers
  Marvell's filing-backed operating portfolio includes electro-optical dsp silicon; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
material · public company
Micron
Micron Technology, Inc.
Memory and storage manufacturer supplying DRAM, HBM, NAND, and related products for AI systems.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier
Products / service
NAND and SSD products
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
Boise
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Storage media & controllers
  Micron's filing-backed operating portfolio includes nand and ssd products; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
material · nonprofit
PyTorch Foundation
Open-source foundation supporting the PyTorch machine-learning framework and distributed-computing ecosystem.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
standards setter
Products / service
distributed machine-learning software
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
Not cataloged
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Runtime & frameworks
  Primary-source evidence connects this institution to distributed machine-learning software in the specified Atlas capability.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
material · standards body
SNIA
Storage Networking Industry Association
Industry association developing storage standards, education, and technical guidance.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
standards setter
Products / service
AI storage technical guidance
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
Not cataloged
Why this organization belongs in the System
- AI storage
  Primary-source evidence connects this institution to ai storage technical guidance in the specified Atlas capability.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
representative · public company
AMD
Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.
Semiconductor company that designs CPUs, GPUs, adaptive computing products, and associated AI software.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier
Products / service
ROCm software platform
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Runtime & frameworks
  AMD's filing-backed operating portfolio includes rocm software platform; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
representative · public company
Coherent
Coherent Corp.
Photonics company supplying lasers, optical communications components, transceivers, and engineered materials.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
manufacturer · supplier
Products / service
Optical transceivers and communications components · Optical communications components
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Optical transceivers
  Coherent's filing-backed operating portfolio includes optical transceivers and communications components; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Optics & fiber
  Coherent's filing-backed operating portfolio includes optical communications components; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
representative · public company
Corning
Corning Incorporated
Materials-science company supplying optical fiber, cable, connectivity products, glass, and ceramic technologies.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
manufacturer · supplier
Products / service
Optical fiber and cabling · Data-center optical connectivity
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Fiber & cabling
  Corning's filing-backed operating portfolio includes optical fiber and cabling; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Optics & fiber
  Corning's filing-backed operating portfolio includes data-center optical connectivity; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
representative · public company
Dell Technologies
Dell Technologies Inc.
Enterprise technology company supplying servers, storage, networking, and integrated AI infrastructure.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier
Products / service
Enterprise storage systems
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- AI storage
  Dell Technologies's filing-backed operating portfolio includes enterprise storage systems; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
representative · public company
Lumentum
Lumentum Holdings Inc.
Optical and photonic-products company supplying components used in cloud, telecom, and industrial laser systems.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
manufacturer · supplier
Products / service
Optical communications components · Photonic components for high-speed links
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- Optical transceivers
  Lumentum's filing-backed operating portfolio includes optical communications components; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Optics & fiber
  Lumentum's filing-backed operating portfolio includes photonic components for high-speed links; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
representative · public company
NetApp
NetApp, Inc.
Data-infrastructure company supplying file, block, object, and cloud storage systems and software.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier
Products / service
Enterprise and cloud data storage
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- AI storage
  NetApp's filing-backed operating portfolio includes enterprise and cloud data storage; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
representative · public company
Seagate
Seagate Technology Holdings plc
Mass-capacity-storage company supplying hard-disk drives and storage systems for cloud and enterprise deployments.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier · manufacturer
Products / service
Cloud and enterprise storage media · Mass-capacity hard-disk drives
Documented activity
World
Headquarters
Ireland
Why this organization belongs in the System
- AI storage
  Seagate's filing-backed operating portfolio includes cloud and enterprise storage media; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Storage media & controllers
  Seagate's filing-backed operating portfolio includes mass-capacity hard-disk drives; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1
representative · public company
Western Digital
Western Digital Corporation
Data-storage company supplying hard-disk drives and related technologies for cloud and enterprise infrastructure.
Roles, locations & evidence
Role
supplier · manufacturer
Products / service
Capacity storage media · Hard-disk drives and storage technologies · Vertically integrated HDD assembly and test
Documented activity
World · Malaysia · Thailand · Philippines
Headquarters
United States
Why this organization belongs in the System
- AI storage
  Western Digital's filing-backed operating portfolio includes capacity storage media; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Storage media & controllers
  Western Digital's filing-backed operating portfolio includes hard-disk drives and storage technologies; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.
- Storage media & controllers
  Western Digital's fiscal 2026 audited filing directly locates its HDD assembly-and-test operations in all three countries. Principal status is withheld because this edition does not close a concentration, capacity, shipment, revenue, or installed-base measure for the role.
Audit entity evidence Trace role claim 1 Trace role claim 2

Read this System in the field guide

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Complete reading list

Volume V

Fabric

15 spreads

Related cross-System reading · 11 spreads

Volume II

Precision

2 spreads

Volume III

Package

1 spreads

III · 01The memory hierarchy

Volume IV

Machine

6 spreads

Volume VII

Permission

2 spreads

Evidence & review

currentEvidence health29 active claims · next review Oct 13, 2026

Active claims: 29
Sources: 48
High volatility: 4
Next review: Oct 13, 2026
Due soon: 0
Overdue: 0
Superseded: 0

Open complete evidence ledger

Connecting the scale-out network

Switching silicon

Scale-up and scale-out

Optics is the distance tax

Storage protects expensive time

Software is the utilization layer

Enters this system 1

Leaves this system 3

NVIDIA

NVM Express

UALink Consortium

Arista Networks

Broadcom

Cisco

Equinix

HPE

Marvell

Micron

PyTorch Foundation

SNIA

AMD

Coherent

Corning

Dell Technologies

Lumentum

NetApp

Seagate

Western Digital

Evidence & review