Intelligence BuildoutMethodology
← All SystemsSystem 09 / facilityReviewed Aug 29, 2026

Sites, Construction & Cooling

Land, fiber, substations, schedule, concrete, steel, water, heat rejection, and commissioning converge at the campus.

Understand the system

How it works

A data center is a site-specific industrial system whose usable compute is bounded by construction sequencing, utility delivery, and safe removal of heat.

Facility dependencies

The campus and its cooling dependencies

Select a capability to explore its role and connections.

Selected: Water system

Water system

Site water supply, treatment, cooling use, discharge, reuse, and seasonal constraints.

Explore Water system in Atlas

Documented connections

Selected documented dependencies. Arrows retain their Atlas direction; they do not represent quantities or a complete engineering process.

The data-center campus is where global supply chains meet local geology, weather, roads, water systems, fiber routes, power networks, labor markets, and permitting. Developers must sequence grading, shells, substations, generators, cooling plants, white space, racks, and commissioning around long-lead equipment. Higher rack density moves cooling from room-scale airflow toward direct liquid loops and changes every interface from the chip to the heat sink.

Site selection is systems engineering

Power, fiber, hazard exposure, land, water, workforce, tax, permitting, and community context interact. A cheap parcel can be expensive once delivery risks are priced. Federal review mechanisms such as FAST-41 may coordinate eligible projects, but a directive or portfolio listing is not a permit and does not remove site-specific standards.

  • Constraints and externalities belong in one site decision
  • Enabling infrastructure has an identifiable cost bearer
Supporting evidence · 5
  1. [1] LBNL's 2025 Update places U.S. data-center electricity use at 649 TWh in its 2030 Reference Case, with compounded-uncertainty bounds of 521 to 843 TWh, or 9.5 to 15.3 percent of U.S. electricity use.
  2. [2] EPA's January 2026 redevelopment guidance says candidate data-center sites must fit site conditions, reach power and fiber, comply with applicable regulation and cleanup controls, and incorporate planning and community input.
  3. [3] CRS finds that individual data centers typically fall under state and local siting, while the federal permitting nexus varies by project; FERC, NRC, the Army Corps, and delegated air and water programs may apply depending on configuration and location.
  4. [4] A July 2025 U.S. executive order directs agencies to review categorical exclusions, use FAST-41 processes where eligible, support brownfield guidance, and examine federal sites for data-center infrastructure; those mechanisms do not themselves constitute project approval.
  5. [5] In Pew's 2026 U.S. data-center survey, 39 percent called data centers mostly bad for the environment, 38 percent mostly bad for home energy costs, and 30 percent mostly bad for nearby quality of life.

Construction follows the critical path

Substations, switchgear, transformers, generators, chillers, coolant distribution, controls, and racks have different lead times. Phased delivery can unlock capacity while later blocks continue.

  • Schedule gates follow the longest-lead equipment
  • Building completion is not commissioned capacity
Supporting evidence · 5
  1. [1] Intel characterizes a modern fab as an investment of roughly 10 billion dollars that can take three to five years to build.
  2. [2] Global investment in data centers reached roughly half a trillion U.S. dollars in 2024, nearly double the 2022 level.
  3. [3] EPA's January 2026 redevelopment guidance says candidate data-center sites must fit site conditions, reach power and fiber, comply with applicable regulation and cleanup controls, and incorporate planning and community input.
  4. [4] CRS finds that individual data centers typically fall under state and local siting, while the federal permitting nexus varies by project; FERC, NRC, the Army Corps, and delegated air and water programs may apply depending on configuration and location.
  5. [5] OpenAI and developer Crusoe describe the Stargate campus in Abilene, Texas as operating: Crusoe reported the first phase live and its first two buildings energized by September 2025, while OpenAI stated in April 2026 that the site operates on Oracle Cloud Infrastructure with NVIDIA GB200 systems.

Cooling is a chain

Heat moves from silicon through package interfaces, cold plates or air, coolant loops, facility water, and finally the atmosphere. The weakest interface limits safe rack power.

  • Trace heat from junction to ambient air
  • Compare air, direct-liquid, and hybrid boundaries
Supporting evidence · 2
  1. [1] NVIDIA's DGX GB200 documentation describes a rack-scale system with 72 GPUs, 36 Grace CPUs, and an approximately 120 kW power envelope, with liquid cooling alongside air-cooled components.
  2. [2] Open Compute Project workstreams are addressing future AI rack power envelopes from 250 kW toward 1 MW alongside liquid-cooling standards.

Water metrics need boundaries

Site WUE varies by cooling architecture, climate, utilization, water source, and season; electricity generation can add off-site water effects. Prince William County's records make the scale problem concrete: 25 operating buildings averaged about 18,000 gallons per building-day, reached about 88,000 gallons on a maximum day, and represented different shares of average-day and maximum-day system demand. A single annual ratio cannot describe that local peak or allocation boundary.

  • Label site and source water separately
  • Report seasonal withdrawals and consumption
Supporting evidence · 3
  1. [1] LBNL estimated average U.S. data-center site water usage effectiveness at just over 0.36 liters per kWh through 2023.
  2. [2] U.S. data centers consumed an estimated 176 TWh in 2023, equal to roughly 4.4 percent of national electricity use.
  3. [3] Prince William County reported that Service Authority records for 25 operating data-center buildings showed about 18,000 gallons per building on an average day and about 88,000 gallons on a maximum day; together, the buildings represented about 1.5 percent of system average-day demand and 3.9 percent of maximum-day demand.

Featured evidence

Modeled U.S. data-center average PUE

LBNL modeled stock-average PUE for 2014 and 2023, followed by a projected 2028 range under lower- and higher-efficiency cases.
Average PUEPUE ratio
View chart values
Modeled U.S. data-center average PUE — underlying values in PUE ratio
CategoryAverage PUE
2014 modeled1.6 PUE ratio
2023 modeled1.4 PUE ratio
2028 projected low1.15 PUE ratio
2028 projected high1.35 PUE ratio

MODEL BOUNDARY — U.S. data-center stock average; 2028 values are projected endpoints, not observed facility results. PUE excludes workload productivity and full lifecycle impacts.

Key indicators

Key measures & constraints

  1. 01

    LBNL estimated average U.S. data-center site water usage effectiveness at just over 0.36 liters per kWh through 2023.

    Class
    estimate
    Geography
    United States
    Period
    through 2023
    Confidence
    medium
    Trace evidence
  2. 02

    LBNL's 2025 Update places U.S. data-center electricity use at 649 TWh in its 2030 Reference Case, with compounded-uncertainty bounds of 521 to 843 TWh, or 9.5 to 15.3 percent of U.S. electricity use.

    Class
    projection
    Geography
    United States
    Period
    2030
    Confidence
    medium
    Trace evidence
  3. 03

    EPA's January 2026 redevelopment guidance says candidate data-center sites must fit site conditions, reach power and fiber, comply with applicable regulation and cleanup controls, and incorporate planning and community input.

    Class
    stakeholder position
    Geography
    United States
    Period
    January 2026 guidance
    Confidence
    high
    Trace evidence
  4. 04

    Open Compute Project workstreams are addressing future AI rack power envelopes from 250 kW toward 1 MW alongside liquid-cooling standards.

    Class
    projection
    Geography
    Global
    Period
    2025 roadmap
    Confidence
    medium
    Trace evidence
  5. 05

    LBNL's modeled annual-average U.S. data-center PUE declined from 1.6 in 2014 to 1.4 in 2023.

    Class
    estimate
    Geography
    United States
    Period
    2014 to 2023
    Confidence
    high
    Trace evidence

System map

Connections across the system

Explore inputs, outputs, and shared capabilities in the Atlas. Open the register for every documented relationship.

Across the system boundary Selected documented relationships · arrows follow the Atlas

Enters this system 12

  1. Grid interconnection→ Data-center campusTrace relationship
  2. Distribution & substations→ Data-center campusTrace relationship

Leaves this system 3

  1. Leading-edge fab← Project capitalTrace relationship
  2. AI rack system← Liquid coolingTrace relationship
System 09Sites, Construction & Cooling10 internal relationships

Shared capabilities can belong to more than one System. These links carry materials, energy, information, capital, or permissions; they describe dependencies, not quantities or a complete process model.

Explore 11 capabilities and operating boundaries
Atlas nodes / 11
All documented relationships · 25
  1. criticaloutput
    Project capitalLeading-edge fab

    Long-duration capital funds fab construction, tools, and ramp.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 1
    1. [1] Intel characterizes a modern fab as an investment of roughly 10 billion dollars that can take three to five years to build.
  2. criticalinput
    Grid interconnectionData-center campus

    Substations and transmission upgrades deliver usable electrical capacity to campus.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 3
    1. [1] LBNL's 2025 Update places U.S. data-center electricity use at 649 TWh in its 2030 Reference Case, with compounded-uncertainty bounds of 521 to 843 TWh, or 9.5 to 15.3 percent of U.S. electricity use.
    2. [2] FERC Order No. 2023 requires cluster studies, greater project-readiness requirements, and transmission-provider delay penalties for generator interconnection.
    3. [3] CRS finds that individual data centers typically fall under state and local siting, while the federal permitting nexus varies by project; FERC, NRC, the Army Corps, and delegated air and water programs may apply depending on configuration and location.
  3. criticalinternal
    Local governanceData-center campus

    Land, water, fiscal, and construction decisions condition campus development.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 4
    1. [1] LBNL estimated average U.S. data-center site water usage effectiveness at just over 0.36 liters per kWh through 2023.
    2. [2] EPA's January 2026 redevelopment guidance says candidate data-center sites must fit site conditions, reach power and fiber, comply with applicable regulation and cleanup controls, and incorporate planning and community input.
    3. [3] CRS finds that individual data centers typically fall under state and local siting, while the federal permitting nexus varies by project; FERC, NRC, the Army Corps, and delegated air and water programs may apply depending on configuration and location.
    4. [4] In Pew's 2026 U.S. data-center survey, 39 percent called data centers mostly bad for the environment, 38 percent mostly bad for home energy costs, and 30 percent mostly bad for nearby quality of life.
  4. criticalinternal
    Transformers & switchgearData-center campus

    Transformers and switchgear convert utility service into protected campus distribution.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] The U.S. Department of Energy reports that distribution-transformer lead times expanded from roughly three to six months in 2019 to twelve to thirty months in 2023.
    2. [2] LBNL's 2025 Update places U.S. data-center electricity use at 649 TWh in its 2030 Reference Case, with compounded-uncertainty bounds of 521 to 843 TWh, or 9.5 to 15.3 percent of U.S. electricity use.
  5. criticalinput
    Distribution & substationsData-center campus

    Distribution service and substations deliver usable utility capacity to the campus boundary.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] The U.S. Department of Energy reports that distribution-transformer lead times expanded from roughly three to six months in 2019 to twelve to thirty months in 2023.
    2. [2] LBNL's 2025 Update places U.S. data-center electricity use at 649 TWh in its 2030 Reference Case, with compounded-uncertainty bounds of 521 to 843 TWh, or 9.5 to 15.3 percent of U.S. electricity use.
  6. importantinput
    AI workload demandProject capital

    Forecast demand unlocks financing and procurement commitments.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 1
    1. [1] Global investment in data centers reached roughly half a trillion U.S. dollars in 2024, nearly double the 2022 level.
  7. importantinternal
    Project capitalData-center campus

    Project finance funds site, shell, utilities, and commissioning.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 1
    1. [1] Global investment in data centers reached roughly half a trillion U.S. dollars in 2024, nearly double the 2022 level.
  8. importantinput
    AI rack systemData-center campus

    Rack power, mass, cooling, and service envelopes constrain facility design.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] NVIDIA's DGX GB200 documentation describes a rack-scale system with 72 GPUs, 36 Grace CPUs, and an approximately 120 kW power envelope, with liquid cooling alongside air-cooled components.
    2. [2] Open Compute Project workstreams are addressing future AI rack power envelopes from 250 kW toward 1 MW alongside liquid-cooling standards.
  9. importantoutput
    Liquid coolingAI rack system

    Liquid loops capture and transport heat from high-density rack components.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] NVIDIA's DGX GB200 documentation describes a rack-scale system with 72 GPUs, 36 Grace CPUs, and an approximately 120 kW power envelope, with liquid cooling alongside air-cooled components.
    2. [2] Open Compute Project workstreams are addressing future AI rack power envelopes from 250 kW toward 1 MW alongside liquid-cooling standards.
  10. importantinternal
    Water systemLiquid cooling

    Water availability and cooling architecture shape heat-rejection options.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 1
    1. [1] LBNL estimated average U.S. data-center site water usage effectiveness at just over 0.36 liters per kWh through 2023.
  11. importantinput
    Host communityLocal governance

    Participation and local evidence shape conditions, legitimacy, and oversight.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 3
    1. [1] EPA's January 2026 redevelopment guidance says candidate data-center sites must fit site conditions, reach power and fiber, comply with applicable regulation and cleanup controls, and incorporate planning and community input.
    2. [2] In Pew's 2026 U.S. data-center survey, 39 percent called data centers mostly bad for the environment, 38 percent mostly bad for home energy costs, and 30 percent mostly bad for nearby quality of life.
    3. [3] In the same Pew survey, 25 percent called data centers mostly good for local jobs and 23 percent mostly good for local tax revenue.
  12. importantoutput
    Skilled workforceLeading-edge fab

    Specialized engineering and technician capability enables ramp and operations.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Intel describes a representative advanced fab as containing about 1,200 production tools plus 1,500 utility-support tools.
    2. [2] The U.S. CHIPS and Science Act provides 52.7 billion dollars over five years, including 39 billion dollars for manufacturing incentives and 11 billion dollars for R&D.
  13. importantinternal
    Skilled workforceData-center campus

    Skilled trades, commissioning, controls, and operations turn assets into capacity.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Global investment in data centers reached roughly half a trillion U.S. dollars in 2024, nearly double the 2022 level.
    2. [2] Open Compute Project workstreams are addressing future AI rack power envelopes from 250 kW toward 1 MW alongside liquid-cooling standards.
  14. importantinput
    Capacity reservationsProject capital

    Capacity reservations supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Microsoft reported $64.551 billion of property and equipment additions in fiscal 2025, compared with $44.477 billion in fiscal 2024; its fiscal year ended June 30 and the measure is not AI-only.
    2. [2] Amazon reported $128.3 billion of cash capital expenditure in 2025, primarily for technology infrastructure—mostly supporting AWS growth—and fulfillment capacity; the amount is not data-center-only or AI-only.
  15. importantinput
    Project finance & riskProject capital

    Project finance & risk supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Global investment in data centers reached roughly half a trillion U.S. dollars in 2024, nearly double the 2022 level.
    2. [2] The U.S. CHIPS and Science Act provides 52.7 billion dollars over five years, including 39 billion dollars for manufacturing incentives and 11 billion dollars for R&D.
  16. importantinternal
    Land & site permittingData-center campus

    Land & site permitting supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] CRS finds that individual data centers typically fall under state and local siting, while the federal permitting nexus varies by project; FERC, NRC, the Army Corps, and delegated air and water programs may apply depending on configuration and location.
    2. [2] EPA's January 2026 redevelopment guidance says candidate data-center sites must fit site conditions, reach power and fiber, comply with applicable regulation and cleanup controls, and incorporate planning and community input.
  17. importantinternal
    EPC & constructionData-center campus

    EPC & construction supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Global investment in data centers reached roughly half a trillion U.S. dollars in 2024, nearly double the 2022 level.
    2. [2] St. Louis's April 2026 conditional approval for the Armory data-center project included closed-loop and air-cooled water design, noise and generator limits, PUE thresholds, annual heat-rejection and reuse reporting, certified e-waste handling, decommissioning, escalating 20-year job minimums, and financial or occupancy remedies for specified shortfalls.
  18. importantinternal
    Transformers & switchgearData-center campus

    Transformers & switchgear supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] The U.S. Department of Energy reports that distribution-transformer lead times expanded from roughly three to six months in 2019 to twelve to thirty months in 2023.
    2. [2] NVIDIA's DGX GB200 documentation describes a rack-scale system with 72 GPUs, 36 Grace CPUs, and an approximately 120 kW power envelope, with liquid cooling alongside air-cooled components.
  19. importantinternal
    UPS, batteries & backupData-center campus

    UPS, batteries & backup supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] LBNL's 2025 Update places U.S. data-center electricity use at 649 TWh in its 2030 Reference Case, with compounded-uncertainty bounds of 521 to 843 TWh, or 9.5 to 15.3 percent of U.S. electricity use.
    2. [2] EPA's January 2026 redevelopment guidance says candidate data-center sites must fit site conditions, reach power and fiber, comply with applicable regulation and cleanup controls, and incorporate planning and community input.
  20. importantinternal
    Heat rejectionLiquid cooling

    Heat rejection supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 3
    1. [1] LBNL's modeled annual-average U.S. data-center PUE declined from 1.6 in 2014 to 1.4 in 2023.
    2. [2] LBNL scenarios place annual-average U.S. data-center PUE between 1.15 and 1.35 in 2028.
    3. [3] LBNL estimated average U.S. data-center site water usage effectiveness at just over 0.36 liters per kWh through 2023.
  21. importantinput
    Environmental permittingLocal governance

    Environmental permitting supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 3
    1. [1] CRS finds that individual data centers typically fall under state and local siting, while the federal permitting nexus varies by project; FERC, NRC, the Army Corps, and delegated air and water programs may apply depending on configuration and location.
    2. [2] A July 2025 U.S. executive order directs agencies to review categorical exclusions, use FAST-41 processes where eligible, support brownfield guidance, and examine federal sites for data-center infrastructure; those mechanisms do not themselves constitute project approval.
    3. [3] EPA's January 2026 redevelopment guidance says candidate data-center sites must fit site conditions, reach power and fiber, comply with applicable regulation and cleanup controls, and incorporate planning and community input.
  22. importantinput
    Grid regulationLocal governance

    Grid regulation supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 3
    1. [1] FERC Order No. 2023 requires cluster studies, greater project-readiness requirements, and transmission-provider delay penalties for generator interconnection.
    2. [2] On June 18, 2026, FERC opened targeted proceedings for six RTOs and ISOs to justify or reform large-load interconnection practices, including flexible service, cost-allocation, and co-location questions.
    3. [3] FERC's chair stated on June 18, 2026 that compliance with Order No. 2023 was not yet fully complete across transmission providers.
  23. importantinput
    Benefit agreements & commitmentsLocal governance

    Benefit agreements & commitments supplies a distinct operating capability within its broader Atlas system.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] St. Louis's April 2026 conditional approval for the Armory data-center project included closed-loop and air-cooled water design, noise and generator limits, PUE thresholds, annual heat-rejection and reuse reporting, certified e-waste handling, decommissioning, escalating 20-year job minimums, and financial or occupancy remedies for specified shortfalls.
    2. [2] Virginia JLARC found that most data centers used no more water than an average large office building, while a few used substantially more, and recommended explicit local authority to require water-use estimates before development approval.
  24. importantinput
    Project finance & riskLand & site permitting

    Financing terms depend on land control, permits, utility milestones, and construction risk.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] Global investment in data centers reached roughly half a trillion U.S. dollars in 2024, nearly double the 2022 level.
    2. [2] CRS finds that individual data centers typically fall under state and local siting, while the federal permitting nexus varies by project; FERC, NRC, the Army Corps, and delegated air and water programs may apply depending on configuration and location.
  25. importantinput
    Benefit agreements & commitmentsLand & site permitting

    Enforceable commitments can become conditions of site approval and continuing operation.

    Trace relationship
    Supporting evidence · 2
    1. [1] St. Louis's April 2026 conditional approval for the Armory data-center project included closed-loop and air-cooled water design, noise and generator limits, PUE thresholds, annual heat-rejection and reuse reporting, certified e-waste handling, decommissioning, escalating 20-year job minimums, and financial or occupancy remedies for specified shortfalls.
    2. [2] Virginia JLARC found that most data centers used no more water than an average large office building, while a few used substantially more, and recommended explicit local authority to require water-use estimates before development approval.

Named companies + institutions

Organizations & their roles

  1. principal · public company

    Alphabet

    Alphabet Inc.

    Technology holding company whose Google businesses procure and operate global AI compute and cloud infrastructure.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    financier
    Products / service
    Technical infrastructure capital investment
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Project capital

      Alphabet's filing-backed operating portfolio includes technical infrastructure capital investment, and the attached quantitative operating or investment measure supports principal status at this Atlas boundary; no subregional operating place is asserted.

  2. principal · public company

    Amazon / AWS

    Amazon.com, Inc.

    Commerce and cloud company whose AWS segment is a major buyer and operator of AI compute, network, and data-center capacity.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    financier
    Products / service
    AWS infrastructure capital investment
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Project capital

      Amazon / AWS's filing-backed operating portfolio includes aws infrastructure capital investment, and the attached quantitative operating or investment measure supports principal status at this Atlas boundary; no subregional operating place is asserted.

  3. principal · public company

    Meta

    Meta Platforms, Inc.

    Digital-platform company that designs, procures, and operates large AI training and inference infrastructure.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    financier
    Products / service
    AI infrastructure capital investment
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Project capital

      Meta's filing-backed operating portfolio includes ai infrastructure capital investment, and the attached quantitative operating or investment measure supports principal status at this Atlas boundary; no subregional operating place is asserted.

  4. principal · public company

    Microsoft

    Microsoft Corporation

    Global cloud and software company that procures, finances, and operates large-scale AI infrastructure.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    financier
    Products / service
    Data-center and compute infrastructure investment
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Project capital

      Microsoft's filing-backed operating portfolio includes data-center and compute infrastructure investment, and the attached quantitative operating or investment measure supports principal status at this Atlas boundary; no subregional operating place is asserted.

All other organizations · 9
  1. material · public company

    Carrier

    Carrier Global Corporation

    Climate and energy-solutions company supplying cooling, controls, and service systems used in buildings and data centers.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    supplier
    Products / service
    Facility cooling and controls · Chillers and heat-rejection systems
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Liquid cooling

      Carrier's filing-backed operating portfolio includes facility cooling and controls; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

    • Heat rejection

      Carrier's filing-backed operating portfolio includes chillers and heat-rejection systems; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

  2. material · government

    DOE Office of Electricity

    United States Department of Energy Office of Electricity

    U.S. government office supporting electric-grid reliability, resilience, monitoring, and supply-chain analysis.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    standards setter
    Products / service
    distribution-transformer supply-chain analysis
    Documented activity
    United States
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Transformers & switchgear

      Primary-source evidence connects this institution to distribution-transformer supply-chain analysis in the specified Atlas capability.

  3. material · public company

    Johnson Controls

    Johnson Controls International plc

    Building-systems company supplying chillers, controls, fire, security, and facility-management technologies.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    supplier
    Products / service
    Building controls and commissioning services · Chillers and thermal-management systems
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    Ireland
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • EPC & construction

      Johnson Controls's filing-backed operating portfolio includes building controls and commissioning services; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

    • Heat rejection

      Johnson Controls's filing-backed operating portfolio includes chillers and thermal-management systems; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

  4. material · public company

    Supermicro

    Super Micro Computer, Inc.

    Server and systems manufacturer supplying modular, rack-scale, and liquid-cooled AI infrastructure.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    supplier
    Products / service
    Direct-liquid-cooled server systems
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Liquid cooling

      Supermicro's filing-backed operating portfolio includes direct-liquid-cooled server systems; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

  5. representative · private company

    Crusoe

    Crusoe Energy Systems LLC

    Data-center developer and operator associated with the Abilene AI infrastructure campus.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    operator
    Products / service
    Abilene data-center development and operation
    Documented activity
    United States · Texas · Abilene
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Data-center campus

      Primary-source evidence connects this institution to abilene data-center development and operation in the specified Atlas capability. Principal status is withheld because this edition does not close a concentration, capacity, shipment, revenue, or installed-base measure for the role.

  6. representative · public company

    Digital Realty

    Digital Realty Trust, Inc.

    Data-center real-estate company developing and operating colocation and hyperscale facilities across global markets.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    operator
    Products / service
    Colocation and hyperscale data centers
    Documented activity
    World · United States · Europe · Asia
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Data-center campus

      Digital Realty's filing-backed operating portfolio includes colocation and hyperscale data centers; the listed places are explicit role geographies, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

  7. representative · public company

    Eaton

    Eaton Corporation plc

    Power-management company supplying electrical distribution, switchgear, UPS, and power-quality systems.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    manufacturer · supplier
    Products / service
    Switchgear and electrical distribution equipment · UPS and power-quality systems
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    Ireland
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Transformers & switchgear

      Eaton's filing-backed operating portfolio includes switchgear and electrical distribution equipment; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

    • UPS, batteries & backup

      Eaton's filing-backed operating portfolio includes ups and power-quality systems; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

  8. representative · public company

    Equinix

    Equinix, Inc.

    Digital-infrastructure company operating carrier-neutral data centers and interconnection services across global markets.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    operator
    Products / service
    Colocation data centers
    Documented activity
    World · United States · Europe · Asia
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Data-center campus

      Equinix's filing-backed operating portfolio includes colocation data centers; the listed places are explicit role geographies, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

  9. representative · public company

    Vertiv

    Vertiv Holdings Co

    Critical-digital-infrastructure company supplying power, thermal management, and service systems for data centers.

    Roles, locations & evidence
    Role
    supplier
    Products / service
    Liquid and air thermal-management systems · UPS and critical-power systems
    Documented activity
    World
    Headquarters
    United States
    Why this organization belongs in the System
    • Liquid cooling

      Vertiv's filing-backed operating portfolio includes liquid and air thermal-management systems; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

    • UPS, batteries & backup

      Vertiv's filing-backed operating portfolio includes ups and critical-power systems; no subregional operating place is asserted, and headquarters is not used as a proxy. Representative status does not imply market rank.

Affected policies

Relevant policies

Legal status is separated from policy objective. Every record keeps its jurisdiction, mechanism, affected nodes, and verification date.

  1. effective

    U.S. CHIPS and Science Act incentives

    Expand domestic semiconductor manufacturing, research, workforce, and supply-chain resilience.

    Mechanism, scope & sources

    Manufacturing grants, loans and guarantees, research programs, and an investment tax credit with program conditions; current project records distinguish proposed and final awards, with disbursement tied to milestones.

    United StatesOpen full policy record
  2. effective

    European Chips Act

    Strengthen European semiconductor capacity, research leadership, monitoring, and crisis response.

    Mechanism, scope & sources

    Coordinates the Chips for Europe initiative, first-of-a-kind facility support, supply monitoring, and crisis tools; the Commission's Chips Act 2.0 work remains a proposal rather than replacement law.

    European UnionOpen full policy record

Read this System in the field guide

Continue in the Volumes

Start with three selected readings, or explore the complete reading list.

Start here
  1. 01
    Volume VI · PlantSite as system
  2. 02
    Volume VI · PlantCritical path
  3. 03
    Volume VI · PlantHeat rejection and water
Complete reading list
Volume VI

Plant

12 spreads
  1. VI · 01Site as system
  2. VI · 02Land and hazards
  3. VI · 03Reach the site
  4. VI · 04Permission to break ground
  5. VI · 05Critical path
  6. VI · 06The data hall
  7. VI · 07Prove the plant
  8. VI · 08Heat path
  9. VI · 09Air and liquid
  10. VI · 10Coolant distribution
  11. VI · 11Heat rejection and water
  12. VI · 12Operate the compact
Related cross-System reading · 23 spreads
Volume I

Matter

3 spreads
  1. I · 01Water and contamination
  2. I · 02Steel, concrete, and enclosure
  3. I · 03Power and thermal materials
Volume II

Precision

2 spreads
  1. II · 01Cleanroom and utilities
  2. II · 02Fab construction and workforce
Volume III

Package

1 spreads
  1. III · 01Power and heat begin in the package
Volume IV

Machine

5 spreads
  1. IV · 01Tray, chassis, and rack
  2. IV · 02Rack power delivery
  3. IV · 03Heat and sustained performance
  4. IV · 04The rack liquid loop
  5. IV · 05Build, ship, install, accept
Volume V

Fabric

4 spreads
  1. V · 01Copper and light
  2. V · 02Routes and patching
  3. V · 03Observe and recover
  4. V · 04Useful work
Volume VI

Plant

2 spreads
  1. VI · 01Voltage path
  2. VI · 02Energy and capacity
Volume VII

Permission

6 spreads
  1. VII · 01Finance and delivery models
  2. VII · 02Project states and stranded risk
  3. VII · 03The permit stack
  4. VII · 04Environmental review and participation
  5. VII · 05Siting, operating conditions, and enforcement
  6. VII · 06Tribal consultation and community consent

Evidence & review

currentEvidence health42 active claims · next review Oct 13, 2026
Active claims
42
Sources
49
High volatility
12
Next review
Oct 13, 2026
Due soon
0
Overdue
0
Superseded
0
Open complete evidence ledger

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Evidence, in context.

Opening the evidence record…